Geographical Issues

Spatiotemporal Pattern Dynamics of Air Pollution in Ulaanbaatar Using Sentinel 5P Satellite Data

Delgermaa Munkhtsetseg, Byambakhuu Gantumur, Munkhzul Munkhbat — Fri, 20 Mar 2026 00:00:00 +0800

Ulaanbaatar is characterized by severe air pollution during the winter season due to meteorological and geographical conditions such as frequent temperature inversions, low wind speeds, and its basin-shaped topography, which favors the accumulation of pollutants. In addition, emissions from household coal combustion, thermal power plants, and increasing vehicle traffic significantly affect the city’s air quality. Therefore, a comprehensive assessment of the spatial distribution and temporal variability of major air pollutants is essential for effective air quality management. In this study, Sentinel-5P (TROPOMI) satellite observations from the winter seasons (November–February) of 2018–2024 were used to evaluate the spatial distribution and temporal dynamics of nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O₃), and the Absorbing Aerosol Index in Ulaanbaatar. Daily satellite products were processed using temporal averaging to generate monthly mean raster datasets. The spatial patterns of air pollutants were analyzed through spatial mapping and statistical methods, including boxplot analysis. The results indicate that NO₂, CO, and the Aerosol Index exhibit high concentrations in central urban districts, densely populated ger areas, around thermal power plants, and along major transportation corridors. In contrast, ozone (O₃) concentrations remain relatively low and stable during winter due to reduced photochemical activity. Furthermore, a temporary decrease in pollutant concentrations was observed during the COVID-19 lockdown period, followed by an increasing trend after economic activities resumed. This study demonstrates that satellite-based observations provide valuable information for developing spatial air pollution monitoring systems, identifying pollution hotspots, and supporting evidence-based urban air quality management and policy development in Ulaanbaatar.

Analyzing the impact of social media on Gen Z travel decisions using TAM and UTAUT models

Wed, 15 Apr 2026 00:00:00 +0800

The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of social media platforms on the travel decisions of Generation Z, individuals born between 1997 and 2012. Additionally, the study aims to provide insights for travel companies on how to create effective digital marketing strategies that align with the behaviors of this generation. By 2025, Generation Z will emerge as a significant consumer group in the travel market, becoming a proactive segment of adults capable of making independent financial decisions. Their travel spending continues to grow each year, but their decision-making process differs from that of Generation X or Millennials. They rely on social media rather than traditional marketing methods like TV ads and brochures. Generation Z's travel decision-making was analyzed using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) to examine the impact of social media platforms on variables such as perceived usefulness, ease of use, social influence, and performance expectancy. In this research, a questionnaire consisting of 35 questions was administered to 157 participants using the Google Forms platform, and the results were analyzed with the SPSS software. The study's results indicate that the impact of social media platforms on Generation Z's travel decisions can be better understood through the UTAUT model's Social Influence and Performance Expectations factors. It shows that Generation Z places a high value on the reliability of information found on social media. These platforms act as significant sources of information and emotional triggers in their travel planning, helping them make decisions influenced by friends, influencers, and online content.

Comparative Analysis of Pedestrian Sidewalk Standards in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Maral Manlai , Byambakhuu Gantumur, Gantulga Gombodorj — Wed, 15 Apr 2026 00:00:00 +0800

Walkability and pedestrian accessibility are central to sustainable urban development but remain particularly challenging in cold-climate cities, where thermal comfort and seasonal conditions strongly influence mobility patterns. In Ulaanbaatar, a rapidly urbanizing city with an extreme continental climate (mean annual temperature of −1.3°C), pedestrian infrastructure is constrained by vehicle-oriented street design and limited right-of-way allocation. Although Mongolia has adopted the national pedestrian planning standard UCS 0901B:2022, its spatial adequacy across different urban contexts has not been systematically evaluated. This study assesses pedestrian infrastructure across four representative street typologies—peri-urban (ger-area) redevelopment, commercial, modern residential, and institutional corridors—using comparative cross-sectional analysis combined with international benchmarking against nine global cities. The results identify pedestrian width as a key spatial determinant of functional pedestrian environments. Two critical thresholds, approximately 2.0 m and 2.5 m, are shown to govern the feasibility of buffer space and canopy-forming vegetation in cold-climate conditions. International comparisons indicate that pedestrian widths in Ulaanbaatar are approximately 40–60% narrower than typology-matched global references across all street categories. These findings highlight a systematic mismatch between current standards and functional spatial requirements. The study provides the first empirical evidence in Ulaanbaatar supporting the adoption of typology-specific pedestrian width targets and integrated green buffer requirements. It therefore recommends revising UCS 0901B:2022 to move beyond a single uniform minimum standard toward a more context-sensitive, performance-based framework for pedestrian planning in cold-climate cities.

Spatial Changes in Land Use and Building Density of the Baga Toiruu Area, Ulaanbaatar city

Sun, 19 Apr 2026 00:00:00 +0800

By examining the interrelationships among urban spatial structure, building density, height distribution, street networks, and green space organization, it is possible to evaluate balanced urban development. The Baga Toiruu area, the historic core of Ulaanbaatar, represents a zone of high spatial and cultural significance, concentrating administrative, educational, cultural, and commercial functions. Recent redevelopment has intensified building density and height, leading to the degradation of traditional urban morphology and a decline in green and open spaces. This study presents the first GIS-based application in Ulaanbaatar using a fishnet grid approach to quantify morphological change through three indices: the Building Coverage Index (BCI), Building Height Index (BHI), and Green Space Index (GI). The research analyzes changes across 243.3 ha of redevelopment land using orthophoto imagery, land-use data, and spatial datasets for the years 2010, 2015, 2020, and 2025. A total of 1,067 grids (50 × 50 m) were generated to assess spatial patterns and temporal trends. Results indicate that between 2010 and 2025, the proportion of areas classified as “very low” GI increased from 42% to 56%, while high and very high BCI categories rose from 5% to 9%. The average BHI increased from 3.34 to 3.56, demonstrating a clear inverse relationship among the indices. Increased building density and height correspond directly with reduced green space coverage, providing quantitative evidence of growing morphological imbalance. These findings highlight the need for planning strategies that preserve historical urban structure, regulate building density and height, and ensure the long-term sustainability of green spaces in central Ulaanbaatar.