Geographical Issues

Comparative study of urbanization levels in local cities (In the case studies of the cities of Arvaikheer, Bayankhongor, and Tsetserleg)

Bazarkhand Tsegmid — 2025-09-15

Urbanization has rapidly accelerated worldwide, drawing significant attention in the fields of economics, sociology, and geography. In the case of Mongolia, the urbanization process has intensified since the country’s transition to a market economy in the 1990s, with population concentration increasingly centered around Ulaanbaatar and other major urban centers. However, urbanization is not merely a matter of population aggregation; it is a complex phenomenon that encompasses changes in land use and economic structure. The objective of this study is to examine the interrelationships and mutual influences among demographic, spatial (land-related), and economic aspects of urbanization, and to identify the key factors impacting the level of urban development. The research focuses on three selected case study cities—Tsetserleg (Arkhangai Province), Bayankhongor (Bayankhongor Province), and Arvaikheer (Uvurkhangai Province)—using statistical data, national and international research, and a range of quantitative econometric techniques. These include time series models, cointegration analysis, error correction models, Granger causality tests, and impulse response functions. A total of 19 indicators across the three dimensions (population, land, economy) were selected, and entropy weight method was employed to construct composite indices. A hybrid urban development classification model was then used to assess the interrelations among these urbanization dimensions. The findings reveal that changes in population growth, land use, and economic structure are interdependent and collectively define the level of urbanization. The analysis further highlights that differences in age structure, migration patterns, land density, and economic sector composition across the three cities play a critical role in shaping urban interlinkages. Therefore, the formulation of urban policy should be grounded in a comprehensive framework that integrates demographic, spatial, and economic indicators. Holistic planning and coordinated policy implementation are essential to ensure balanced and sustainable urban development.

Identifying Land Suitability for Nomadic Pastoralism using Geospatial Techniques and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)

Perliimaa Gantumur — 2025-09-15

This study evaluates the spatial suitability of land for nomadic pastoralism across two distinct seasonal periods: winter–spring and summer–autumn. Nomadic pastoralism is a cornerstone of Mongolia’s rural livelihood system, but its sustainability is increasingly challenged by pasture degradation, climatic variability, and socio-economic pressures. Since pasture quality and accessibility fluctuate significantly between seasons, identifying suitable grazing areas is critical for ensuring both ecological resilience and herder well-being. To capture these dynamics, seven environmental and socio-economic factors were selected for each season and analyzed using a geographic information system (GIS)–based multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). Factor selection followed the methodological guidelines for pasture suitability assessment issued by the Agency of Land Administration and Management, Geodesy and Cartography (ALAMGaC), while additional determinants reflecting herder mobility and traditional grazing practices were incorporated to refine the evaluation framework. The results reveal distinct seasonal contrasts. During the winter–spring season, 11.26% of the study area was identified as unsuitable for grazing, 18.02% as less suitable, 46.37% as moderately suitable, and 24.35% as highly suitable. In contrast, summer–autumn conditions produced a less favorable distribution, with 23.83% unsuitable, 30.66% less suitable, 30.22% moderately suitable, and only 15.29% highly suitable. These differences emphasize the influence of climatic and ecological seasonality on pasture productivity and herding strategies. The findings suggest that sustainable pasture management requires not only an understanding of spatial heterogeneity but also season-specific planning. Such an approach can provide valuable insights for policymakers, land managers, and local herding communities seeking to maintain the viability of nomadic pastoral systems under changing environmental and socio-economic conditions.

A Review Study on the Assessment of Transport Networks

Urantamir Gankhuyag — 2025-09-16

Regional cooperation, global trade, and the growing demand for transportation necessitate the development of efficient transport networks. This study aims to establish a comprehensive knowledge base on the evolution of transport networks, assess major axes and corridors, identify emerging trends, and highlight existing research gaps. To achieve this, a thematic taxonomy was developed based on objectives, topics, scope, keywords, methodologies, and similarities. Using the Web of Science (WoS) database, 937 publications related to transport networks and corridors were initially retrieved. Of these, 198 articles were selected and analyzed through three stages: assessing the accessibility of the papers, checking for overlap, and conducting content analysis. Recent studies on transport network and corridor assessments indicate that since 2021, the keywords 'Bayesian network', 'transport corridor', 'resilience assessment', and 'quality' have gained increasing prominence. The articles assessing transport networks and corridors can be categorized into five clusters according to the thematic taxonomy: (1) investment and benefit analysis, (2) performance assessment, (3) environmental, social, and economic impact analysis, (4) resilience and risk analysis, and (5) comparative assessment of alternatives. The methods most commonly employed in these assessments include multi-criteria analysis, data envelopment analysis, and time–cost–distance methods. While studies evaluating transportation alternatives have increasingly focused on efficiency, they have largely overlooked the issue of optimal spatial location. A comprehensive assessment that simultaneously addresses both efficiency and optimal spatial location could provide significant advantages.

Engineering geomorphological study to assess the potential for artificial lake construction in the agricultural areas of the Selenge River Basin, northern Mongolia

Zhenjiang Ma — 2025-09-25

Under the intensifying impacts of global climate change and the increasing frequency of droughts and harsh winters, the agricultural regions of the Selenge River Basin in Mongolia are facing persistent water scarcity. This study aims to identify and evaluate geomorphologically suitable sites for artificial lake construction in order to strengthen water supply, ensure environmental balance, and meet domestic water needs within the framework of Mongolia’s national initiative “333 Lakes, One District–One Lake.” A suitability assessment was conducted through spatial analysis based on a 30 m resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM), employing the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method. From an engineering geomorphological perspective, the evaluation considered not only topography, hydrology, precipitation, and soil conditions but also additional land-use factors. The results reveal that 10.12% of the study area is classified as highly suitable, 69.45% as suitable, and 13.34% as moderately suitable, while the remaining 7.09% is either unsuitable or restricted by land-use constraints. Based on the comprehensive assessment, nine representative potential sites for artificial lakes were selected. For each site, potential irrigable areas, domestic water supply capacity, and livestock watering availability were estimated, and a general economic evaluation of potential water sources and dam construction costs was conducted. This study emphasizes that incorporating engineering geomorphological analysis and Geographic Information System (GIS)-based approaches provides essential scientific support for site selection of artificial lakes, thereby contributing to sustainable agricultural and pastoral development in the Selenge River Basin.

Assessment of Agricultural Suitability Using Surface Morphometric Indicators: A Case Study of the Western Soums of Selenge Province, Northern Mongolia

Bayarmaa Vandangombo — 2025-10-03

This study identifies and characterizes territories suitable for agricultural production in the western soums of Selenge Province, Mongolia. The western soums cover 19,900 km², representing 44.8% of the province’s total area. The study area lies within the Selenge River basin, which, compared to other river basins in Mongolia, is distinguished by fertile soils, favorable thermal and moisture conditions, abundant water resources, and relatively flat terrain dominated by floodplains—making it a particularly suitable region for agricultural development.According to 2024 statistics, the western soums contain 67% of the province’s agricultural land and 68% of its arable land, with 15.37% of the agricultural land currently under crop cultivation. To assess land suitability, surface morphometric indicators were derived from the HydroSHEDS (Hydrological Data and Maps Based on Shuttle Elevation Derivatives at Multiple Scales) 90 m resolution digital elevation model. Three key factors—elevation, slope, and aspect—were extracted and classified using a reclassification method. To improve accuracy, pairwise interactions among these factors (elevation–aspect, elevation–slope, and aspect–slope) were evaluated using combinational matrices. This approach provided a more realistic and multidimensional representation of morphological conditions than single-factor analyses. Land suitability was quantified on a five-point scale, ranging from highly suitable to highly unsuitable. The results indicate that areas classified as highly suitable and suitable account for 45.72% of the total, moderately suitable areas comprise 19.83%, while unsuitable and highly unsuitable areas make up 38.16%. Considering the spatially uneven distribution of croplands in Mongolia, regionally differentiated evaluations that account for land surface characteristics are essential to support effective agricultural land-use planning. In the future, this methodology can be applied to assess agricultural lands in other regions of Mongolia, with adjustments made for their specific surface characteristics.

Temporal and spatial variation of gross primary productivity and its response to extreme climate in Mongolia

Ai Lan — 2025-11-04

Mongolia has extremely fragile ecosystems and rich vegetation resources in arid and semi-arid zones. It is highly affected by extreme climatic events and is important in the global carbon cycle. In global warming, it is important to study its vegetation changes for ecological security. In this paper, based on the gross primary productivity (GPP) data with daily maximum temperature, daily minimum temperature and daily precipitation data of Mongolia from 2000 to 2023, the characteristics of spatial and temporal changes in GPP and its response to climate extremes were analyzed by using Sen Slope + Mann-Kendall trend analysis, MK mutation test, Pearson's correlation analysis method, and structural equation modeling (SEM). The main findings of the study are as follows: (1) GPP shows an overall increasing trend, especially in the northern Mongolia, with 61% of the study area experiencing significant growth. (2) Extreme temperature indices (SU, TNx, TNn) and precipitation index R20 are increasing at most stations, while R95P and SDII are declining. (3) Extreme precipitation indices generally support GPP, though they suppress it in Western Mongolia. R20 is identified as the primary driver of vegetation growth. (4) TNx and SU inhibit GPP, except in North Mongolia, where warmer summers enhance productivity. R20 and R95P have opposing effects on GPP, highlighting the dual role of precipitation type and intensity.

Assessing Suitable Sites for Heavy Industry Development Using GIS: A Case Study of the Gobi Region

Nandin-Erdene Ganzorig — 2025-11-24

The heavy industry sector is one of the strategic sectors that form the foundation of a country’s industrial competitiveness and sustainable economic development. Therefore, determining the optimal locations for industrial zones based on scientifically grounded spatial analysis and computational methods is crucial. The main objective of this study was to identify suitable locations for establishing heavy industries in the Gobi region using GIS-based Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) and the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), taking into account natural conditions, resources, socio-economic factors, and other relevant information. A total of 19 evaluation criteria were used in this study, including three criteria related to mineral and natural resources, five infrastructure-related criteria, three market-related criteria, six socio-economic criteria, and four environmental restriction criteria representing areas prohibited for industrial development under Mongolian legislation. The results indicated that 2.1% of the study area is highly suitable, 6.7% is suitable, 15.5% is moderately suitable, 57.2% is unsuitable, and 18.3% is restricted for industrial development. The developed evaluation aligns with planned industrial projects and programs in the Gobi region, as indicated by a Kappa coefficient of 0.69. These findings demonstrate the applicability of scientifically based spatial evaluation methods in planning heavy industry development in the Gobi region. Consequently, the results provide practical recommendations for implementing new industrial projects in optimal locations, as well as for planning infrastructure investments and environmental management.

Content analysis of social media marketing by outbound tour operators

Shinebayar Jamina — 2025-12-29

This study examines the social media marketing strategies and their effectiveness among Mongolian outbound tour operators using a content analysis approach. As Mongolia’s outbound travel market continues to grow rapidly, digital marketing has emerged as a crucial channel for building customer relationships, enhancing brand value, and sustaining competitive advantages. The study analyzes the reach, engagement, interaction, and potential purchase impact of 2,110 “Facebook” posts published by 15 outbound tour operators between January and April 2024. The findings reveal that most tour operators rely heavily on high-frequency, repetitive static posters and text-based content, while lacking interactive, storytelling, and user-centered materials capable of stimulating active audience participation. High posting frequency was found to correlate with lower engagement and reduced effectiveness. In contrast, tour operators employing low-frequency but high-impact advertising campaigns or producing high-quality, targeted content demonstrated significantly stronger effectiveness per post. The analysis also shows that follower count is not directly associated with engagement - smaller but active tour operators perform better than larger pages with passive audiences. Overall, the results highlight the need for Mongolian outbound tour operators to prioritize user segmentation, content quality, brand narrative development, and sustained audience relationships in order to improve their social media marketing performance. Further research involving tour operators serving both domestic and international markets is recommended to assess digital marketing effectiveness within the Mongolian tourism industry and to develop a more user-centric strategic model.

Determination of Annual Ablation of the Doloonnuur Glacier on Munkhkhairkhan Mountain, Mongolian Altai, Using a Degree-Day Model

Tsogoo Bilguun — 2025-12-31

Mongolia is among the ten countries most vulnerable to global warming and climate change. Mid-term observations from western Mongolia indicate that the mean annual air temperature increased by 2.08 °C between 1940 and 2017, exerting a strong influence on glacier melt and area shrinkage in high mountain regions. This study estimates the annual melt of the Doloon Nuur Glacier, located on Munkhkhairkhan Mountain in the Mongolian Altai, using a degree-day model (DDM) and evaluates the results against in situ stake measurements. Air temperature data recorded by an automatic weather station between 15 June 2023 and 15 June 2024, together with ablation stake measurements installed on 15 June 2023, were used in the analysis. The cumulative positive degree days (PDD) amounted to 844.8 °C·day over the study period. Applying a degree-day factor of 6.0 mm w.e. °C⁻¹ day⁻¹, the calculated annual melt reached 5.06 m in the lower glacier zone, 4.2 m in the middle zone, and 3.1 m in the upper zone, yielding a glacier-wide mean melt of 4.1 m. The modeled melt shows good agreement with the observed mean stake ablation of 3.6 m, with a difference of 0.5 m, supporting the reliability of the degree-day approach in this region. Between 2023 and 2024, the glacier ablation area decreased by 5.3 ha (≈5%), corresponding to an estimated ice volume loss of 2.18 × 10⁵ m³ water equivalent (converted using a mean ice density of 900 kg m⁻³). These results demonstrate that temperature-based modeling provides a robust framework for assessing glacier mass loss in Mongolia and offers a valuable data foundation for long-term glacier mass-balance monitoring and climate-change impact assessments in data-scarce mountain regions.